Синтаксические параллелизмы и хиазмы в поэзии и прозе (урок 31, C1)

🎯 Цели урока

К концу этого урока вы сможете:

• Распознавать и создавать различные типы параллелизмов
• Использовать хиазмы для усиления риторического эффекта
• Понимать грамматическую структуру сложных параллельных конструкций
• Применять параллелизмы в поэзии и прозе
• Анализировать функцию параллелизмов в известных текстах

📖 Что такое синтаксический параллелизм?

Syntactic parallelism (синтаксический параллелизм) — это повторение грамматической структуры в последовательных фразах, предложениях или строках для создания ритма, эмфазы и связности.

Базовая структура:

Simple parallelism: "She likes reading, writing, and painting."

Грамматика: Three gerunds в параллельной структуре

Complex parallelism: "To err is human; to forgive, divine." — Alexander Pope

Грамматика: Two infinitive phrases с параллельной структурой (to + verb + copula + adjective)

Почему параллелизм важен:

1. Creates rhythm — делает текст более музыкальным
2. Emphasizes connection — показывает связь между идеями
3. Aids memory — делает текст запоминающимся
4. Adds elegance — придает sophistication
5. Clarifies structure — помогает организовать complex ideas

🎵 Типы параллелизмов

1. Isocolon (Изоколон)

Definition: Successive clauses of approximately equal length и parallel structure.

Пример: "Veni, vidi, vici." (I came, I saw, I conquered.) — Julius Caesar

Грамматика:

• Three clauses
• Each: Subject (implied I) + Past tense verb
• Approximately equal length (2 syllables each в латыни)

В английской прозе: "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets." — Winston Churchill

Грамматика:

• Repeated structure: Subject (we) + shall + fight + prepositional phrase
• Parallel verb phrases
• Increasing length создает crescendo

Эффект:

• Rhythmic power
• Builds momentum
• Creates expectation и satisfaction при fulfillment

2. Anaphora (Анафора)

Definition: Repetition of word или phrase at beginning of successive clauses.

Пример: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness..." — Charles Dickens

Грамматика:

• Repeated phrase: "it was the"
• Parallel structure: it + copula + noun phrase
• Contrasting content (best/worst, wisdom/foolishness)

Современный пример: "We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans..." — Churchill

Грамматика:

• Repeated subject + modal: "We shall"
• Parallel verb phrases following
• Creates insistent, determined tone

Эффект:

• Emphasis через repetition
• Builds emotional intensity
• Creates sense of accumulation

3. Epistrophe (Эпистрофа)

Definition: Repetition в конце successive clauses.

Пример: "When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child." — 1 Corinthians 13:11

Грамматика:

• Repeated ending: "as a child"
• Parallel structure: Subject + past tense verb + as a child
• Three parallel clauses

В современной речи: "...and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." — Abraham Lincoln

Грамматика:

• Repeated noun: "the people"
• Parallel prepositional phrases (of/by/for + the people)
• Each phrase modifies "government"

Эффект:

• Emphasizes repeated element
• Creates closure и finality
• Binds separate ideas together

4. Symploce (Симплока)

Definition: Combination of anaphora и epistrophe — repetition at both beginning и end.

Пример: "Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado." — Martin Luther King Jr.

Грамматика:

• Repeated beginning: "Let freedom ring from"
• Repeated ending: geographical location
• Imperative + object + verb + prepositional phrase
• Parallel structure throughout

Более простой пример: "The king is dead; long live the king."

Грамматика:

• "The king" appears at beginning и end
• Parallel structure with inversion in second clause
• Copula + adjective / imperative + verb

Эффект:

• Maximum emphasis
• Powerful rhythmic effect
• Very memorable

5. Antithesis (Антитезис)

Definition: Parallel structure presenting contrasting ideas.

Пример: "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." — Neil Armstrong

Грамматика:

• Parallel structure: demonstrative + adjective + noun + for + noun
• Contrasting elements: small/giant, step/leap, man/mankind
• Ellipsis of verb в second clause (implied "is")

Литературный пример: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times." — Dickens

Грамматика:

• Perfect parallel: it + copula + definite article + superlative + of times
• Only difference: best vs worst
• Antonyms в identical grammatical positions

Эффект:

• Highlights contrast
• Creates balance
• Emphasizes opposition

6. Chiasmus (Хиазм)

Definition: Reversal of grammatical structures в successive phrases (AB-BA pattern).

Классический пример: "Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country." — JFK

Грамматическая структура:

Clause A: what + your country + can do + for + you Clause B: what + you + can do + for + your country

Pattern: AB → BA (country-you becomes you-country)

Более простой пример: "Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you."

Структура: First part: fool (noun) + kiss (verb) + you Second part: kiss (noun) + fool (verb) + you

Pattern: noun-verb → verb-noun

Эффект:

• Creates symmetry
• Witty, memorable
• Emphasizes relationship between elements
• Suggests deeper connection

🔍 Грамматический анализ параллелизмов

Level 1: Simple Parallel Lists

Пример: "I came, I saw, I conquered."

Грамматический breakdown:

• Three independent clauses
• Each: Subject (I) + past simple verb
• Asyndeton (no conjunctions между первыми двумя)
• Polysyndeton с final element может добавить emphasis

Variations:

• With conjunctions: "I came and I saw and I conquered" (polysyndeton)
• Without subject repetition: "I came, saw, and conquered" (более compact)

Level 2: Parallel Phrases

Пример: "To be, or not to be, that is the question." — Shakespeare

Грамматический breakdown:

• Two infinitive phrases (to be / not to be)
• Second is negative parallel
• Followed by demonstrative + copula + noun (that is the question)

Структура:

• Infinitive phrase + or + negative infinitive phrase + comma + demonstrative pronoun + copula + definite article + noun

Level 3: Complex Nested Parallelism

Пример: "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender." — Churchill

Грамматический breakdown:

Layer 1: Five independent clauses начинающихся с "we shall"

• Four: we shall fight + prepositional phrase
• One: we shall never surrender

Layer 2: Parallel prepositional phrases

• on the beaches
• on the landing grounds
• in the fields and in the streets (compound)
• in the hills

Layer 3: Progression от beaches → landing grounds → fields/streets → hills

• Geographical progression inland
• Increasing resistance

Punctuation pattern:

• Commas separating first four clauses
• Semicolon before final, climactic clause
• Creates pause before final statement

Level 4: Chiastic Structures

Пример: "Fair is foul, and foul is fair." — Shakespeare, Macbeth

Грамматическая структура:

Clause 1: Fair (A) + is + foul (B) Clause 2: foul (B) + is + fair (A)

Pattern: A-is-B, B-is-A

Deeper analysis:

• Both adjectives become both subjects и predicates
• Copula remains constant (is)
• Conjunction (and) marks the reversal
• Creates paradox through structure

Сложный хиазм: "Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you."

Структура:

Clause 1: let + a fool (noun/A) + kiss (verb/B) + you Clause 2: (let) + a kiss (noun/B) + fool (verb/A) + you

Pattern: noun₁-verb₁ becomes noun₂-verb₂ where noun₂=verb₁ и verb₂=noun₁

Грамматические features:

• Parallel imperative structures
• Verb ellipsis во second clause (implied "let")
• Both "fool" и "kiss" function as both noun и verb
• Creates wordplay через grammatical transformation

🎨 Параллелизм в поэзии

William Blake - "The Tyger"

"Tyger Tyger, burning bright, In the forests of the night; What immortal hand or eye, Could frame thy fearful symmetry?"

Параллелизм:

Line 1: Repeated word (Tyger Tyger) + participial phrase Line 2: Prepositional phrase mirroring line 1's rhythm Lines 3-4: Parallel interrogative structure

Грамматика:

• Line 1: Noun + noun + comma + present participle + adjective
• Line 2: Preposition + article + noun + preposition + article + noun
• Line 3: Interrogative (What) + adjective + noun + conjunction + noun
• Line 4: Modal + verb + possessive + adjective + noun

Ритмический parallelism:

• Trochaic tetrameter (stressed-unstressed pattern)
• Parallel syllable counts
• Rhyme scheme reinforces structure (bright/night, eye/symmetry)

Walt Whitman - "Song of Myself"

"I celebrate myself, and sing myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you."

Параллелизм:

Line 1: Two parallel clauses с "myself"

• Structure: Subject + verb + reflexive pronoun + and + verb + reflexive pronoun

Line 2: Parallel verb structures (assume/assume)

• Structure: what + subject + verb + subject + modal + verb

Line 3: Parallel participial phrases (belonging to me / belongs to you)

Грамматика:

• Anaphora: "I" и "And" beginning consecutive lines
• Repeated reflexive pronoun (myself)
• Parallel verb structures
• Chiastic element: me/you → you/me

Emily Dickinson - "Hope is the thing with feathers"

"Hope is the thing with feathers That perches in the soul, And sings the tune without the words, And never stops at all,"

Параллелизм:

Relative clauses в parallel:

• "That perches in the soul"
• "And sings the tune without the words"
• "And never stops at all"

Грамматическая структура:

• All modify "thing" (hope)
• All: (That/And) + present simple verb + complement/modifier
• Progressive complexity (perches → sings → never stops)

Effect:

• Accumulation of characteristics
• Each clause adds dimension to metaphor
• Parallel structure reinforces unity of concept

📝 Параллелизм в прозе

Charles Dickens - "A Tale of Two Cities"

"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair..."

Анализ параллелизма:

Layer 1: Anaphora

• Every clause begins with "it was the"
• Creates insistent rhythm

Layer 2: Parallel structure

• Pattern: it + copula + definite article + noun + of + noun
• Consistent throughout

Layer 3: Antithesis

• Each pair presents opposites:
  • best/worst
  • wisdom/foolishness
  • belief/incredulity
  • Light/Darkness
  • spring/winter
  • hope/despair

Layer 4: Semantic parallelism

• Temporal nouns: times, age, epoch, season
• Paired with abstract concepts или seasonal metaphors

Грамматический эффект:

• Relentless rhythm suggests inevitability
• Parallel structure emphasizes contradictions
• Accumulation creates overwhelming sense of paradox

Martin Luther King Jr. - "I Have a Dream"

"I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed. I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice."

Анализ параллелизма:

Primary anaphora: "I have a dream that one day"

• Repeated at beginning of multiple paragraphs
• Creates anticipation и emotional building

Parallel clauses within:

• "the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners"

  • Structure: definite article + noun + of + adjective + noun
  • Perfect parallel emphasizes equality

• "sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression"

  • Participial phrases в parallel
  • Repetition of "sweltering with the heat of" creates intensity

That-clauses:

• Each "I have a dream" followed by "that" clause
• Subordinate clauses describing the dream's content
• Parallel grammatical structure unifies vision

Грамматический эффект:

• Anaphora creates mounting emotional intensity
• Parallel structures suggest inevitability of vision
• Repetition makes speech memorable и moving

Barack Obama - 2008 Victory Speech

"If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible; who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time; who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer."

Анализ параллелизма:

Triple parallel relative clauses:

1. "who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible"
2. "who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time"
3. "who still questions the power of our democracy"

Грамматическая структура каждого:

• Relative pronoun (who)
• Adverb (still)
• Verb of uncertainty (doubts/wonders/questions)
• That/if clause или direct object
• Complex embedded structures

Pattern:

• who + still + verb + subordinate clause
• Escalating verbs: doubts → wonders → questions
• Each more direct than previous

Semicolons:

• Separate three parallel clauses
• Create measured, deliberate pace
• Build to final comma before answer

Final clause:

• "tonight is your answer"
• Subject + copula + possessive + noun
• Simple structure contrasts with complex parallel clauses
• Provides resolution to built-up tension

🔬 Создание собственных параллелизмов

Упражнение 1: Simple to Complex

Level 1: Basic three-part list

Create parallel structure с three elements:

Template: I love [gerund], [gerund], and [gerund].

Your version: "I love reading classic novels, writing poetry, and discussing literature."

Грамматика: Three gerund phrases в parallel

Level 2: Add complexity

Add modifiers to each element:

Your version: "I love reading classic novels in quiet libraries, writing poetry in early morning hours, and discussing literature with passionate friends."

Грамматика:

• Three gerund phrases
• Each followed by prepositional phrase
• Parallel structure maintained despite added complexity

Level 3: Create antithesis

Make second set parallel but contrasting:

Your version: "I love reading classic novels in quiet libraries, but I hate skimming bestsellers in crowded airports."

Грамматика:

• Parallel positive и negative structures
• love/hate создают antithesis
• Parallel verb + object + location structure

Упражнение 2: Anaphora Practice

Task: Write three sentences начинающихся с same phrase

Topic: Change you want to see

Template: "We must [verb]..."

Example: "We must recognize the urgency of this moment. We must understand that silence is complicity. We must act before the opportunity passes."

Грамматический анализ:

• Subject (We) + modal (must) + base verb repeated
• Each sentence adds different infinitive phrase
• Progressive call to action: recognize → understand → act

Your turn: Choose different anaphoric phrase и create your own

Упражнение 3: Creating Chiasmus

Task: Create chiastic structure (AB-BA)

Simple formula: [Noun A] [Verb B] → [Verb B] [Noun A]

Example: "Work to live, don't live to work."

Structure:

• Work (noun/A) to live (verb/B)
• live (verb/B) to work (noun/A)

More complex: "Eat to live, or live to eat?"

Try with adjectives: "When the going gets tough, the tough get going."

Structure:

• the going (A - gerund) + gets tough (B - adj)
• the tough (B - adj as noun) + get going (A - gerund)

Your turn: Create chiasmus using different word classes

Упражнение 4: Extended Parallel Passage

Task: Write paragraph using multiple types of parallelism

Topic: Describing a moment of realization

Requirements:

• Use anaphora (repeated beginning)
• Include at least one antithesis
• Maintain parallel grammatical structures
• 100-150 words

Example:

"I understood then what I had been missing. I understood that success wasn't measured in achievements but in growth. I understood that wisdom came not from avoiding mistakes but from embracing them. I understood, finally, that the journey mattered more than the destination—that the stumbles were lessons, that the detours were discoveries, that the delays were opportunities. What I thought was failure had been preparation. What I feared was loss had been liberation. What I resisted was change had been evolution. In that moment, everything shifted. The questions I'd been asking were replaced by questions I should have asked. The goals I'd been chasing were replaced by purposes worth pursuing."

Грамматический анализ:

Anaphora: "I understood"

• Repeated four times
• Creates rhythm of accumulation

Parallel structures:

• "not from X but from Y" (antithesis)
• "that the X were Y" (repeated three times)
• "What I [verb] was [noun] had been [noun]" (repeated three times)

Chiastic element:

• "questions I'd been asking" → "questions I should have asked"
• "goals I'd been chasing" → "purposes worth pursuing"
• Similar structures but values reversed

🎯 Функции параллелизма в контексте

1. Emphasis and Persuasion

Example: Churchill's "We shall fight..."

Function:

• Repetition emphasizes determination
• Parallel structure suggests inevitability
• Accumulation builds emotional force

When to use:

• Persuasive writing
• Speeches
• Manifestos
• Calls to action

2. Creating Balance

Example: "To err is human; to forgive, divine."

Function:

• Parallel structure suggests natural pairing
• Balance implies completeness
• Symmetry creates aesthetic satisfaction

When to use:

• Philosophical writing
• Proverbs
• Epigrams
• Balanced arguments

3. Building Complexity

Example: King's "I have a dream" speech

Function:

• Parallel framework allows complex ideas
• Repetition provides anchor for comprehension
• Structure prevents confusion despite complexity

When to use:

• Complex arguments
• Vision statements
• Descriptions of multifaceted concepts

4. Creating Wit

Example: "Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you."

Function:

• Chiasmus creates surprise
• Wordplay through structural reversal
• Memorable through cleverness

When to use:

• Aphorisms
• Witty observations
• Memorable one-liners
• Social commentary

5. Poetic Beauty

Example: Blake's "Tyger Tyger"

Function:

• Parallel structures create rhythm
• Repetition reinforces themes
• Symmetry mirrors content (fearful symmetry)

When to use:

• Poetry
• Lyrical prose
• Descriptive passages
• Meditative writing

📊 Анализ: Параллелизм в известных текстах

Abraham Lincoln - Gettysburg Address

"...that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."

Грамматический breakdown:

Three parallel prepositional phrases:

1. of the people
2. by the people
3. for the people

Structure:

• Each: preposition + definite article + noun
• Modify "government"
• No commas между первыми двумя (creates tight connection)
• Comma before final element (gives it weight)

Semantic progression:

• of (origin, composition)
• by (agency, operation)
• for (purpose, benefit)

Грамматический эффект:

• Triple parallel reinforces democratic principle
• Each preposition adds dimension
• Completeness suggested by three-part structure
• Rhythm makes phrase memorable

Why это works:

• Brevity (only nine words для powerful concept)
• Exact parallel (same determiner и noun)
• Only difference is preposition (focuses attention there)
• Historical context: redefining democracy during Civil War

Maya Angelou - "Still I Rise"

"You may write me down in history With your bitter, twisted lies, You may trod me in the very dirt But still, like dust, I'll rise."

Параллелизм:

Anaphora: "You may" repeated

• Creates accusatory rhythm
• Establishes pattern of oppression

Parallel structures:

• "You may [verb] me [prepositional phrase]"
• write me down in history
• trod me in the very dirt

Antithetical finale:

• "But still... I'll rise"
• First person response to second person actions
• Future tense counters present/past of accusations

Грамматический анализ:

• Modal (may) suggests both permission и possibility
• Transitive verbs (write, trod) с direct object (me)
• Prepositional phrases indicating location/medium
• But marks pivot from oppression to resistance
• Simile (like dust) в pivot adds layer

Franklin D. Roosevelt - First Inaugural Address

"The only thing we have to fear is fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance."

Параллелизм в определении страха:

Three parallel adjectives:

1. nameless
2. unreasoning
3. unjustified

Structure:

• All modify "terror"
• All negative-sense adjectives
• All roughly equal length
• Progressive complexity (1, 3, 4 syllables)

Грамматический breakdown:

• Subject: "The only thing we have to fear"
• Copula: "is"
• Subject complement: "fear itself"
• Em-dash introduces appositive
• Appositive: three adjectives + noun + relative clause

Relative clause parallelism:

• "which paralyzes needed efforts"
• "to convert retreat into advance"
• Infinitive of purpose
• Contains own parallel: retreat/advance (antithesis)

Why это works:

• Famous opening establishes what NOT to fear
• Parallel adjectives emphasize characteristics of harmful fear
• Final antithesis (retreat→advance) suggests solution
• Complex sentence structure demonstrates control (contrasts with fear)

💡 Продвинутые техники

1. Nested Parallelism

Example: "I came to see, to understand, to learn—to see the truth behind the lies, to understand the reasons behind the actions, to learn the lessons behind the mistakes."

Structure:

• Level 1: Three infinitives (to see, to understand, to learn)
• Level 2: Each expands into full phrase с parallel structure
• Pattern: to [verb] the [noun] behind the [noun]

Грамматика:

• Outer parallel: three infinitive phrases
• Inner parallel: three expanded infinitives с identical structure
• Creates both simplicity и complexity

2. Interrupted Parallelism

Example: "We study history not because it repeats—it doesn't—but because it echoes."

Structure:

• Parallel potential: "not because X but because Y"
• Interrupted by "it doesn't"
• Resumption of parallel

Грамматика:

• Negative reason clause (not because)
• Interruption: parenthetical statement (em-dashes)
• Positive reason clause (but because)
• Maintains parallel despite interruption

Effect:

• Acknowledges и dismisses counterargument
• Returns to main parallel structure
• More sophisticated than simple parallelism

3. Accumulated Parallelism

Example: "She was tired of the lies, weary of the deception, exhausted by the constant performance, drained by the effort of maintaining appearances, depleted by the energy required to pretend everything was fine."

Structure:

• Five parallel past participles (tired, weary, exhausted, drained, depleted)
• Each followed by prepositional phrase
• Progressive complexity (increasing length)

Грамматика:

• All: past participle + of/by + gerund/noun phrase
• Subject + copula + series of predicate adjectives
• Each more complex than previous
• Creates crescendo effect

4. Chiastic Parallelism

Complex example: "When the rich wage war, it's the poor who die. When the poor demand justice, it's the rich who decide."

Structure:

• Sentence 1: When [rich] [wage war], [poor] [die]
• Sentence 2: When [poor] [demand justice], [rich] [decide]

Pattern:

• AB-BA at sentence level
• When-clause structure repeated
• Subjects reverse (rich/poor → poor/rich)

Грамматика:

• Temporal clauses (When X do Y)
• Main clauses (it's X who verb)
• Perfect structural parallel
• Semantic reversal emphasizes injustice

🔑 Ключевые takeaways

1. Parallelism creates rhythm, emphasis, memorability
2. Match grammatical structures exactly для strongest effect
3. Anaphora (repetition at beginning) builds intensity
4. Epistrophe (repetition at end) creates closure
5. Chiasmus (reversal) surprises и delights
6. Antithesis (contrasting parallels) highlights differences
7. Use parallelism strategically — не в every sentence
8. Vary complexity — simple parallels и nested ones
9. Pay attention to punctuation — it guides rhythm
10. Read aloud — parallelism должен sound right

💡 Финальное задание

Create three pieces using different types of parallelism:

1. Short speech (150-200 words)

• Use anaphora (repeated beginning)
• Include at least one antithesis
• Build to climactic statement
• Topic: something you believe in strongly

2. Poem (12-20 lines)

• Use parallel structures in at least half the lines
• Include one chiasmus
• Create rhythm through syntactic repetition
• Topic: your choice

3. Descriptive paragraph (100-150 words)

• Use accumulated parallelism (building list)
• Vary the complexity of parallel elements
• End with contrasting non-parallel sentence для emphasis
• Topic: a place, person, or experience

Self-evaluation checklist:

• [ ] Grammatical structures truly parallel?
• [ ] Does parallelism serve clear purpose?
• [ ] Is it memorable when read aloud?
• [ ] Does it enhance meaning, not just decorate?
• [ ] Appropriate punctuation to guide reading?