Урок 14 (B2): Формальная лексика и структуры для академического письма

Привет! Мы начинаем Модуль 3: Академический и деловой английский — один из самых важных модулей для тех, кто стремится к профессиональному использованию английского языка. Первый урок посвящен формальной лексике и структурам для академического письма.

Академический английский — это особый "диалект" английского языка, который используется в университетах, научных журналах, исследовательских работах и формальных документах. Это как переход от повседневного разговора к изысканному научному дискурсу.

Разговорный английский: I think this idea is really good and lots of people agree with it.
Академический английский: This concept appears to be highly regarded by a considerable number of scholars, suggesting its validity within the academic community.

Чувствуете разницу? Академический стиль характеризуется:

• Объективностью (избегание субъективных мнений)
• Точностью (использование специализированной терминологии)
• Формальностью (сложные грамматические структуры)
• Логичностью (четкие связи между идеями)
• Безличностью (минимальное использование "I", "you")

На уровне B2 владение академическим стилем необходимо для:

• Написания эссе и курсовых работ
• Участия в научных конференциях
• Чтения научной литературы
• Подготовки к экзаменам IELTS, TOEFL
• Поступления в зарубежные университеты

Готовы погрузиться в мир академического английского? Начинаем наше путешествие в высокий стиль!

🎯 Основные характеристики академического стиля

🔍 Принципы академического письма

1. Объективность и безличность

Избегайте: I think, I believe, In my opinion
Используйте: It can be argued that, Evidence suggests, Research indicates

2. Точность и специфичность

Избегайте: a lot of, many, very important
Используйте: a significant number of, numerous, of paramount importance

3. Формальность лексики

Избегайте: get, big, show
Используйте: obtain, substantial, demonstrate

4. Сложность структур

Избегайте простых предложений: The results were good.
Используйте сложные конструкции: The findings yielded remarkably positive outcomes, suggesting significant implications for future research.

📚 Формальная академическая лексика

🔍 Замена разговорных слов на академические

Глаголы

Существительные

Прилагательные

🔍 Специализированная академическая лексика

Для введения идей

• Commence (начинать): We commence our analysis with...
• Initiate (инициировать): The study initiates a discussion on...
• Embark upon (приступать): This research embarks upon an exploration of...
• Undertake (предпринимать): The authors undertake a comprehensive review...

Для анализа и интерпретации

• Scrutinize (тщательно изучать): We scrutinize the available evidence.
• Elucidate (прояснять): The theory elucidates complex relationships.
• Substantiate (подтверждать): The findings substantiate previous claims.
• Corroborate (подкреплять): Additional research corroborates these results.

Для выводов

• Culminate (завершаться): The analysis culminates in several key findings.
• Conclude (заключать): We conclude that the hypothesis is supported.
• Infer (делать вывод): From the data, we can infer that...
• Deduce (выводить): It can be deduced that...

📚 Связующие слова и фразы (Linking Words)

🔍 Для введения аргументов

Первый аргумент

• Primarily / First and foremost: Primarily, the research indicates...
• Initially / To begin with: Initially, it is important to establish...
• In the first instance: In the first instance, we must consider...

Дополнительные аргументы

• Furthermore / Moreover: Furthermore, the evidence suggests...
• Additionally / In addition: Additionally, several studies have shown...
• What is more: What is more, the implications extend beyond...
• Not only... but also: The study is not only comprehensive but also innovative.

Последний аргумент

• Finally / Lastly: Finally, the economic implications must be addressed.
• Most importantly: Most importantly, the ethical considerations...
• Above all: Above all, the safety of participants...

🔍 Для контраста и противопоставления

Сильный контраст

• However / Nevertheless: The results were promising. However, limitations exist.
• Nonetheless / Notwithstanding: Nonetheless, further research is required.
• Conversely / In contrast: Conversely, the control group showed different patterns.

Слабый контраст

• Although / While: Although the sample was small, the results were significant.
• Despite / In spite of: Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable insights.
• Whereas: The experimental group improved, whereas the control group remained stable.

🔍 Для причины и следствия

Причина

• Due to / Owing to: Due to methodological constraints...
• As a result of / Consequent upon: As a result of these findings...
• Given that / In light of: Given that the evidence is compelling...

Следствие

• Consequently / Therefore: Consequently, the hypothesis must be revised.
• Thus / Hence: Thus, it can be argued that...
• Accordingly / As a result: Accordingly, new policies are needed.

🔍 Для примеров и иллюстрации

• For instance / For example: For instance, recent studies in neuroscience...
• To illustrate / By way of illustration: To illustrate this point...
• Namely / Specifically: Several factors are relevant, namely...
• Such as / Including: Various methodologies, such as qualitative analysis...

📚 Академические структуры и конструкции

🔍 Безличные конструкции

Конструкции с "It"

• It is evident that: It is evident that climate change affects biodiversity.
• It can be argued that: It can be argued that technology enhances learning.
• It should be noted that: It should be noted that the sample size was limited.
• It is worth noting that: It is worth noting that cultural factors play a role.

Пассивные конструкции

• It is widely acknowledged that: It is widely acknowledged that education is crucial.
• It has been suggested that: It has been suggested that early intervention is effective.
• It is generally accepted that: It is generally accepted that diversity benefits organizations.

🔍 Конструкции для выражения мнений

Осторожные утверждения (Hedging)

• It would appear that: It would appear that the correlation is significant.
• It seems likely that: It seems likely that further research will confirm...
• There is some evidence to suggest: There is some evidence to suggest a relationship.
• The findings tend to indicate: The findings tend to indicate a positive effect.

Уверенные утверждения

• The evidence clearly demonstrates: The evidence clearly demonstrates causation.
• Research conclusively shows: Research conclusively shows the effectiveness.
• It is unequivocally clear that: It is unequivocally clear that intervention is needed.

🔍 Структуры для сравнения

Сходства

• Similarly / Likewise: Similarly, the European model shows comparable results.
• In the same way: In the same way, both studies reached similar conclusions.
• Correspondingly: Correspondingly, the second experiment yielded similar data.

Различия

• In contrast to / Unlike: In contrast to previous findings, this study reveals...
• Diverging from: Diverging from traditional approaches, the new method...
• As opposed to: As opposed to quantitative methods, qualitative research...

📚 Академические клише и устойчивые выражения

🔍 Для введения темы

• The purpose of this study is to: The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between...
• This paper aims to: This paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of...
• The present investigation seeks to: The present investigation seeks to determine whether...
• The objective of this research is to: The objective of this research is to explore the impact of...

🔍 Для обзора литературы

• A considerable body of literature: A considerable body of literature exists on this topic.
• Previous research has established: Previous research has established the importance of...
• Extensive research has been conducted: Extensive research has been conducted in the field of...
• The literature reveals: The literature reveals a gap in our understanding of...

🔍 Для методологии

• The methodology employed: The methodology employed in this study consists of...
• Data were collected through: Data were collected through structured interviews.
• The sample comprised: The sample comprised 200 participants from diverse backgrounds.
• Statistical analysis was performed using: Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software.

🔍 Для результатов

• The findings reveal: The findings reveal a statistically significant difference.
• The results indicate: The results indicate a strong positive correlation.
• Analysis of the data suggests: Analysis of the data suggests several key trends.
• The evidence points to: The evidence points to the effectiveness of the intervention.

🔍 Для выводов

• In conclusion: In conclusion, the study provides compelling evidence for...
• The implications of these findings: The implications of these findings extend beyond...
• This research contributes to: This research contributes to our understanding of...
• Future research should: Future research should focus on longitudinal studies.

📚 Особенности американского академического английского

🔍 Лексические предпочтения

American vs. British Academic Terms

American Academic Preferences

• Utilize over use (more formal): The study utilizes advanced statistical methods.
• Prior to over before: Prior to data collection, ethical approval was obtained.
• Subsequent to over after: Subsequent to the intervention, improvements were observed.

🔍 Структурные особенности

Direct approach

Американский академический стиль тяготеет к более прямому изложению:

• American: This study demonstrates that...
• British: This study would appear to suggest that...

Active voice preference

В американских академических текстах чаще используется активный залог:

• More American: Researchers conducted the study over six months.
• More British: The study was conducted over six months.

🔍 Цитирование и ссылки

APA Style (American)

• According to Smith (2023), the findings indicate...
• Recent research demonstrates significant improvements (Johnson & Davis, 2022).

Format preferences

• American: Month Day, Year (January 15, 2023)
• British: Day Month Year (15 January 2023)

🧠 Мнемотехники для запоминания академической лексики

1. Метод "FORMAL"

Formal vocabulary (используй формальную лексику)
Objective tone (объективный тон)
Recise language (точный язык)
Methodical structure (методичная структура)
Academic phrases (академические фразы)
Linking words (связующие слова)

2. Правило "3 P's"

Precise (точный): избегай неопределенных слов
Professional (профессиональный): используй терминологию
Passive (пассивный): предпочитай безличные конструкции

3. Пирамида формальности

Top: HIGHLY FORMAL (It is unequivocally established that...)
     ↑
Middle: FORMAL (Research demonstrates that...)
     ↑
Bottom: INFORMAL (Studies show that...)

4. Мнемоника связующих слов "CHEF"

Contrast: However, Nevertheless, Conversely
Hierarchy: Firstly, Furthermore, Finally
Example: For instance, To illustrate, Namely
Follow-up: Therefore, Consequently, Thus

⚠️ Типичные ошибки русскоговорящих

1. Избыточная субъективность

   ❌ I think this research is very interesting and I believe it will help many people.
   ✅ This research appears noteworthy and has the potential to contribute significantly to the field.

2. Использование разговорной лексики

   ❌ The study shows that kids learn better when they use computers.
   ✅ The research demonstrates that children's learning outcomes improve when technology is implemented in educational settings.

3. Простые грамматические структуры

   ❌ Many people agree with this idea. It is good.
   ✅ This concept enjoys considerable support within the academic community, suggesting its validity and potential applicability.

4. Неправильное использование связующих слов

   ❌ But the results were different. Also, the methodology was problematic.
   ✅ However, the results differed significantly. Furthermore, methodological limitations were evident.

5. Прямой перевод с русского

   ❌ In this work we will look at the problem of...
   ✅ This paper examines the issue of... / This study addresses the challenge of...

6. Неправильная структура предложений

   ❌ Because of that the results are not reliable, we need more research.
   ✅ Given that the results lack reliability, additional research is warranted.

👥 Практические диалоги

Диалог 1: Академическая конференция

Professor Williams: Your presentation was quite compelling, Dr. Martinez. The methodology you employed seems particularly innovative.

Dr. Martinez: Thank you. We endeavored to address the methodological limitations that characterize much of the existing literature in this field.

Professor Williams: Indeed. It is evident that your approach yielded more comprehensive results. However, I'm curious about the generalizability of your findings.

Dr. Martinez: That's an astute observation. While our sample was substantial, it should be acknowledged that the participants were drawn from a relatively homogeneous population.

Professor Williams: Nevertheless, the implications are significant. To what extent do you believe these findings contribute to our understanding of the broader theoretical framework?

Dr. Martinez: The evidence suggests that our results substantiate the core tenets of the theory. Furthermore, they elucidate mechanisms that were previously poorly understood.

Professor Williams: Remarkably insightful. What directions do you envisage for future research?

Dr. Martinez: Several avenues warrant exploration. Primarily, longitudinal studies would facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of causal relationships.

Диалог 2: Диссертационное собрание

Advisor: Let's examine your progress on Chapter 3. The literature review appears comprehensive, but certain sections require further elaboration.

Graduate Student: I acknowledge that the theoretical framework section needs substantial revision. The challenge lies in integrating the diverse theoretical perspectives.

Advisor: Precisely. It would be beneficial to establish clearer connections between the various theories. How do you propose to address this methodological concern?

Graduate Student: I've identified several key themes that traverse the different theoretical approaches. By organizing the review around these themes, I can demonstrate their interconnectedness.

Advisor: That approach has considerable merit. Additionally, you should ensure that the rationale for your chosen methodology is explicitly articulated.

Graduate Student: Absolutely. I plan to dedicate a separate section to justifying the qualitative approach, particularly given the exploratory nature of the research questions.

Advisor: Excellent. One final point: the implications section should more clearly delineate the practical applications of your anticipated findings.

Graduate Student: I concur. The research should contribute not only to theoretical understanding but also to evidence-based practice in the field.

Диалог 3: Рецензирование статьи

Editor: Thank you for undertaking the review of this manuscript. What is your overall assessment of the paper's contribution to the field?

Reviewer: The study addresses an important gap in the literature. However, several methodological concerns need to be addressed before publication can be contemplated.

Editor: Could you elaborate on the specific issues you've identified?

Reviewer: Primarily, the sample size appears insufficient for the statistical analyses employed. Furthermore, the operational definitions of key variables are inadequately specified.

Editor: These are significant concerns. Do you believe the authors can adequately address these limitations through revision?

Reviewer: With substantial modifications, the paper has the potential to make a meaningful contribution. The theoretical framework is sound, and the research questions are well-formulated.

Editor: What specific recommendations would you propose for the authors?

Reviewer: I would suggest expanding the sample size and providing more rigorous definitions of the constructs. Additionally, the discussion should more explicitly acknowledge the study's limitations.

Editor: Your assessment is thorough and constructive. I'll convey these recommendations to the authors with a decision of major revision.

📚 Академическая лексика по дисциплинам

🔍 Социальные науки

Ключевые термины:

• Phenomenon (явление): This social phenomenon requires investigation.
• Paradigm (парадигма): The research operates within a constructivist paradigm.
• Demographics (демография): The demographic characteristics of the sample...
• Correlation (корреляция): A strong correlation exists between variables.
• Causation (причинность): The study establishes causation, not merely correlation.

Методология:

• Ethnographic approach (этнографический подход)
• Longitudinal study (лонгитюдное исследование)
• Cross-sectional analysis (кросс-секционный анализ)
• Qualitative methodology (качественная методология)
• Quantitative measures (количественные измерения)

🔍 Естественные науки

Ключевые термины:

• Hypothesis (гипотеза): The hypothesis was rigorously tested.
• Variable (переменная): Independent and dependent variables were identified.
• Control group (контрольная группа): The control group received no treatment.
• Statistical significance (статистическая значимость): Results achieved statistical significance.
• Replication (воспроизводимость): The findings require replication.

Процедуры:

• Experimental design (экспериментальный дизайн)
• Data collection (сбор данных)
• Statistical analysis (статистический анализ)
• Peer review (рецензирование)
• Publication bias (публикационная предвзятость)

🔍 Гуманитарные науки

Ключевые термины:

• Discourse (дискурс): The analysis examines political discourse.
• Narrative (нарратив): Multiple narratives emerge from the text.
• Interpretation (интерпретация): Various interpretations are possible.
• Context (контекст): Historical context is crucial for understanding.
• Critique (критика): The work offers a sustained critique of...

Методы:

• Textual analysis (текстуальный анализ)
• Historical research (историческое исследование)
• Critical theory (критическая теория)
• Hermeneutic approach (герменевтический подход)
• Comparative analysis (сравнительный анализ)

📚 Итоговая таблица: Уровни формальности в академическом письме

Градация академических выражений:

📝 Упражнения

Упражнение 1: Замените разговорную лексику на академическую

1. This study looks at how technology affects student learning.
2. A lot of people think that social media is bad for kids.
3. The results show that the new method works better.
4. We found out that there's a big difference between the two groups.
5. Many studies have talked about this problem before.
6. The government should do something about climate change.
7. It's really important to help students who are struggling.
8. The company made a lot of money last year.

Упражнение 2: Добавьте подходящие связующие слова

1. The methodology was rigorous. ______, certain limitations must be acknowledged.
2. The sample size was substantial. ______, the response rate was disappointingly low.
3. ______ establishing the theoretical framework, we turn to the empirical findings.
4. The intervention proved effective. ______, long-term sustainability remains questionable.
5. ______, the research contributes to our understanding of the phenomenon.
6. ______ the promising results, replication studies are necessary.
7. The findings support the hypothesis. ______, they raise new questions for future research.
8. ______ the complexity of the issue, multiple methodological approaches were employed.

Упражнение 3: Переписать в академическом стиле

Перепишите следующий отрывок в академическом стиле:

I think that using computers in schools is a good idea. A lot of teachers say that kids learn better when they use technology. But some people worry that too much screen time is bad. In my opinion, we need to find the right balance. Studies show that technology can help students, but we also need to be careful about how we use it.

Упражнение 4: Создайте академические предложения

Используя данные слова, создайте академические предложения:

1. research / demonstrate / significant / correlation
2. findings / suggest / implications / educational policy
3. methodology / employ / comprehensive / analysis
4. evidence / indicate / substantial / improvement
5. study / contribute / understanding / phenomenon

Упражнение 5: Определите уровень формальности

Расположите следующие выражения от наименее формального к наиболее формальному:

1. The study proves that...
2. It is conclusively established that...
3. Research shows that...
4. Evidence suggests that...
5. It can be demonstrated that...
6. The findings indicate that...

📝 Домашнее задание

Задание 1: Трансформация стиля

Возьмите любую статью из популярного журнала или блога на английском языке (200-300 слов) и перепишите ее в академическом стиле, используя:

• Формальную лексику
• Безличные конструкции
• Связующие слова
• Академические клише

Задание 2: Академический анализ

Выберите любое социальное явление (например, влияние социальных сетей, удаленная работа, онлайн-образование) и напишите академический анализ (400-500 слов), включающий:

• Введение с четкой постановкой проблемы
• Обзор существующих исследований
• Собственный анализ
• Выводы и рекомендации

Задание 3: Критический обзор

Найдите научную статью по любой теме на английском языке и напишите ее критический обзор (300-400 слов), используя академический стиль. Включите:

• Краткое изложение основных идей
• Анализ методологии
• Оценка выводов
• Предложения для будущих исследований

Задание 4: Словарь академических терминов

Создайте персональный словарь из 50 академических терминов и фраз, организованный по функциям:

• Введение идей (10 фраз)
• Анализ и интерпретация (10 фраз)
• Сравнение и контраст (10 фраз)
• Причина и следствие (10 фраз)
• Выводы (10 фраз)

Задание 5: Редактирование текста

Отредактируйте следующий текст, превратив его в академический стиль:

Many people today use social media every day. It's become a big part of our lives. Some folks think it's great because you can talk to friends and share photos. But others worry that it's making people less social in real life. I've noticed that when I go to restaurants, lots of people are looking at their phones instead of talking to each other. This seems like a problem to me. We need to think about how social media is changing the way we communicate and whether these changes are good or bad.

📚 Ответы к упражнениям

Упражнение 1

1. This study examines the impact of technology on student learning outcomes.
2. A considerable number of scholars argue that social media has detrimental effects on young people.
3. The results demonstrate that the alternative methodology yields superior outcomes.
4. The investigation revealed a substantial disparity between the two groups.
5. Extensive research has addressed this issue previously.
6. Governmental intervention is warranted to address climate change.
7. Providing support for struggling students is of paramount importance.
8. The organization achieved significant financial gains in the previous fiscal year.

Упражнение 2

1. However / Nevertheless
2. However / Nevertheless
3. Having established / After
4. However / Nevertheless
5. In conclusion / Finally
6. Despite / Notwithstanding
7. Furthermore / Moreover
8. Given / Due to

Упражнение 3

It can be argued that the integration of technology in educational settings has considerable merit. A substantial number of educators maintain that student learning outcomes improve when technological tools are employed. However, concerns have been raised regarding the potential adverse effects of excessive screen exposure. It would appear that achieving an optimal balance is essential. Research demonstrates that technology can facilitate learning processes, nevertheless, careful consideration must be given to its implementation.

Упражнение 4

1. Research demonstrates a significant correlation between the variables.
2. The findings suggest important implications for educational policy.
3. The methodology employed a comprehensive analysis of the data.
4. Evidence indicates substantial improvement in performance measures.
5. This study contributes to our understanding of the phenomenon.

Упражнение 5

1. Research shows that... (наименее формально)
2. The findings indicate that...
3. Evidence suggests that...
4. The study proves that...
5. It can be demonstrated that...
6. It is conclusively established that... (наиболее формально)